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PEDAGOGICAL PRINCIPLES OF ISLAMIC EDUCATION

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             At birth, says Ibn Khaldun, we are entirely devoid of knowledge; we are still no more than ‘raw material'. We then gradually gain ‘form' ‘thanks to the knowledge we acquire through our organs'. Essentially ignorant, we fulfill ourselves as human beings only through knowledge. Ibn Khaldun distinguishes three types of knowledge corresponding to as many ‘degrees of thought'. There is practical knowledge, the product of ‘the discerning intelligence', which allows us to act in the world in a controlled fashion; then ‘a knowledge of what we must or must not do and of what is good or evil', which we acquire through our ‘empirical intelligence' and which guides us in our relations with our fellows; and, lastly, theoretical knowledge of everything that exists in the world, which we conquer by our ‘speculative intelligence'. Only this last type of knowledge, the subject of the sciences, gives us the possibility of reaching perfection of soul.

The teaching of the sciences is necessary for two reasons: firstly, thorough knowledge of them requires a lengthy period of learning that can be carried out only with the help of teachers; secondly, their very development requires them to be communicated to others.

Ibn Khaldun's pedagogical conception is based on the central concept of the habitus, in connection with the learning of the arts. All habitus are necessarily corporal. He understands the habitus as something the soul can acquire only through the senses, as opposed to another type of knowledge proper to the prophets and mystics, which can be obtained only through the contemplation by the soul of its own essence.

This concerns both the physical and the intellectual aptitudes, starting with the very fact of thinking. The formation of a habitus initially requires continuous repetition until the form is fixed. In order to obtain maximum efficiency, it must be a practice (bi-'l-mubashara) and modeled on the most perfect exemplars with the help of the best teachers, preferably following methods of direct observation (bi-'l-mu'ayana). Ibn Khaldun thinks that the soul has but fairly limited receptivity (isti'dad). For one thing, it cannot receive several ‘dyes' at a time; then, when it has taken on one of these, its capacity to receive others gradually diminishes. Training must thus start from the earliest age, when the soul is still virgin, ‘because the first things to be imprinted into hearts are like foundations for the habitus; and the building's value is determined by that of its foundations'.

Ibn Khaldun calls attention to another important factor in the formation of habitus, namely that of authority. An overly severe attitude on the part of the teacher leads to the most harmful consequences, particularly for young children. In this connection, he cites the situation of slaves, servants and oppressed nations. Constraint and oppression break the character, sap energy and in the end destroy their subjects' capacity for realizing ‘their destiny and their full humanity'. He therefore recommends moderate use of authority and punishment, taking into consideration the personality of the pupil and the need ‘to instruct without afflicting the pupil and killing his or her spirit'.

Finally, habitus can be either good or bad; they may take the form of either virtue or vice, good or evil, good taste or bad, refinement or crudeness, clarity and exactness or confusion. They also differ in degree, depending on the quality of teaching and of the models imitated and on the general level of development of the civilization.

Source:  Ibnu Khaldun

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Deterioration of morals, ethics, and decrease of nation achievement is a strong indication that this nation is facing various dilemmas. If it does not have any solution that can be found we will face more complicated problems. Character and culture education is considered as one solution to minimize shallow understanding against the noble values of the Indonesian nation. How can Ibnu khaldun’s pedagogical principles be integrated into Indonesian Schools to provide perfect human beings (insan kamil)?

EDUCATION SYSTEM IN MOSLEM SOCIETIES

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             The education system in Muslim societies was without a doubt one of the most extensive and most developed of all those prevailing in pre-industrial societies, which was due to the very nature of Muslim society itself. The body composed of scholars and the literati was open, non-centralized, non-hereditary, and non-exclusive, with a fluid organization that implied no formal hierarchy, thus giving rise to a relatively broad education and teaching system that in many ways prefigured our modern systems.

In Islamic thought, education, which here takes in religion and morals, is a process that ends at no determined stage or age but lasts an entire lifetime, as expressed in the saying attributed to the Prophet Muhammad: ‘Learn science from the cradle to the grave'.

Such figures as that of the literate man (adib), the pious man, the fakir or dervish, and that of the burgher or governor consorting with the learned, so typical of Muslim society, owed a great deal to this system of general instruction based on such institutions as the mosque or the zaouia, and carried forward by such people as the sermon-writer (khatib, wâ'iz), the poet, the religious reformer or the saint, and by a vast literature of popularizations made up of literary anthologies, encyclopedias, local or general histories, biographical dictionaries, pious works, mystical treatises, etc.

The educational and cultural Islamic system led to the production of an abundant literature setting forth its organization and functioning, analyzing its standards and values. Philosophers such as al-Farabi and Miskawayh proposed a theory of education whose end was to allow human beings to reach the perfection proper to their nature. At another level, al-Mawardi  proposed an education programme reconciling worldly and religious interests, and al-Ghazali, in his celebrated Hiyal' alum al-din [The Revival of the Religious Sciences], formulated a theoretical basis and devised a practical method for attaining the religious ideal of the good Muslim. All these educational theories, in line with a tradition that goes back to Graeco-Roman antiquity, are interested in the human being per se, considered in every aspect of his or her being. They do not concentrate on a particular stage of human life or a particular type of instruction or institution; they lay down a number of fundamental educational principles, though in a subsidiary and cursory manner: the restrained use of authority and corporal punishment, the need to awaken the child's interest, the value of example, and progression in learning. Above all, they insist on the importance of the pedagogical relationship and define the respective roles and duties of master and student.

Thus, in Islamic thought education was perceived as a matter that, during infancy, devolved upon the family, especially the father, whereas in adulthood it became the individual's own responsibility. Yet no clear awareness of a unified system of education as a fundamental component of the social system bringing together all aspects of the replication of individuals and groups had come into being. The accent was placed rather on the individual soul, which had to be corrected (taqwim), improved (tahdhib), reformed (islah) and healed of its sickness (mudawat). General concepts such as ta'dib (educate) or ta'lim (instruct) concerned individuals and comprised acts or relations involving person-to-person relationships.

 Source:  Muslim Heritage 

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One of the western scientists, Jean Piaget, said that children’s development depends on stages of cognitive development. They are sensory-motor (birth-2 yrs), where the children are able to  differentiates self from objects , pre-operational (2-7 years), learn to use language and to represent objects by images and words, concrete operational (7-11 years), can think logically about objects and events, formal operational (11 years and up)  can think logically about abstract propositions and test hypotheses systematically.  On the other hand, Prophet Muhammad said: ‘Learn science from the cradle to the grave.'  Is the development dependent on the age or learning process? Include at least three reasons to support your argument.  

AL-FARABI’S PERSPECTIVES ON THE GOALS OF ISLAMIC EDUCATION

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            In fact, education is one of the most important social phenomena in al-Farabi's philosophical system. It is concerned with the human soul and makes sure that the individual is prepared from an early age to become a member of society, to achieve his own level of perfection, and thus to reach the goal for which he was created. However, while it is true that there are no writings specifically devoted to education in al-Farabi's books, anyone who follows his writings with care will come upon various texts scattered here and there containing clear educational elements corresponding to his overall philosophical views, which incline to integrate separate concepts and thoughts into a ‘unified world view'.

Indeed, the whole activity of education, in al-Farabi's view, can be summed up as the acquisition of values, knowledge and practical skills by the individual, within a particular period and a particular culture. The goal of education is to lead the individual to perfection since the human being was created for this purpose, and the goal of humanity's existence in this world is to attain happiness, which is the highest perfection—the absolute good.

The perfect human being (al-insan al-kamil), thought al-Farabi, is the one who has obtained theoretical virtue—thus completing his intellectual knowledge—and has acquired practical moral virtues—thus becoming perfect in his moral behaviour. Then, crowning these theoretical and moral virtues with effective power, they are anchored in the souls of individual members of the community when they assume the responsibility of political leadership, thus becoming role models for other people. Al-Farabi unites moral and aesthetic values: good is beautiful, and beauty is good; the beautiful is that which is valued by the intelligentsia. So this perfection which he expects from education combines knowledge and virtuous behavior; it is happiness and goodness at one and the same time.

Al-Farabi used a large number of technical terms to describe this concept: discipline (ta'dib), correction/assessment (taqwim), training (tahdhib), guidance (tasdid), instruction (ta'lim), exercise or learning (irtiyad), and upbringing or education (tarbiya). Good manners or culture (adab), in his opinion, in their true educational meaning are the ‘combination of all the good qualities', while discipline is the ‘way of creating the moral virtues, and the practical arts in the nations'. Instruction (ta'lim) is ‘creating the speculative virtues in nations and cities'. Al-Farabi distinguishes between instruction (ta'lim) and discipline (ta'dib). The former is the way of acquiring a theoretical culture, and is mainly verbal. The latter form ethical conduct, and leads to technical or practical skills.  

 Source: 'Ammar al-Talbi 

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Report to UNESCO of the International Commission on Education for the Twenty-first Century that education throughout life is based upon four pillars: learning to know, learning to do, learning to live together, and learning to be. Explain your point of view, how UNESCO’s four pillars of education can reach perfect human being (al-insan al-kamil).  Are those pillars enough  or is there anything missing?

THE ISLAMIC CONCEPT OF KNOWLEDGE

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            In the Islamic theory of knowledge, the term used for knowledge in Arabic is 'ilm, which, as Rosenthal has justifiably pointed out, has a much wider connotation than its synonyms in English and other Western languages. 'Knowledge' falls short of expressing all the aspects of 'ilm. Knowledge in the Western world means information about something, divine or corporeal, while 'ilm is an all-embracing term covering theory, action and education. Rosenthal, highlighting the importance of this term in Muslim civilization and Islam, says that it gives them a distinctive shape. 

In fact there is no concept that has been operative as a determinant of the Muslim civilization in all its aspects to the same extent as 'ilm. This holds good even for the most powerful among the terms of Muslim religious life such as, for instance, tawhid "recognition of the oneness of God," ad-din, "the true religion," and many others that are used constantly and emphatically. None of them equals ilm in depth of meaning and wide incidence of use. There is no branch of Muslim intellectual life, of Muslim religious and political life, and of the daily life of the average Muslim that remains untouched by the all pervasive attitude toward "knowledge" as something of supreme value for Muslim being. 'ilm is Islam, even if the theologians have been hesitant to accept the technical correctness of this equation. The very fact of their passionate discussion of the concept attests to its fundamental importance for Islam. 

It may be said that Islam is the path of "knowledge." No other religion or ideology has so much emphasized the importance of 'ilm. In the Qur'an the word 'alim has occurred in 140 places, while al-'ilm in 27. In all, the total number of verses in which 'ilm or its derivatives and associated words are used is 704. The aids of knowledge such as book, pen, ink etc. amount to almost the same number. Qalam occurs in two places, al-kitab in 230 verses, among which al-kitab for al-Qur'an occurs in 81 verses. Other words associated with writing occur in 319 verses.

'Ilm is of three types: information (as opposed to ignorance), natural laws, and knowledge by conjecture. The first and second types of knowledge are considered useful and their acquisition is made obligatory. As for the third type, this refers to what is known through guesswork and conjecture, or is accompanied with doubt.

In Islam 'ilm is not confined to the acquisition of knowledge only, but also embraces socio-political and moral aspects. Knowledge is not mere information; it requires the believers to act upon their beliefs and commit themselves to the goals which Islam aims at attaining. In brief, I would like to say that the theory of knowledge in the Islamic perspective is not just a theory of epistemology. It combines knowledge, insight, and social action as its ingredients. I would like to cite here a tradition of the Prophet (S) narrated by Amir al-Mu'minin 'Ali ibn Abi Talib: Once Gabriel came to Adam. He brought with him faith, morality (haya') and 'aql (reason) and asked him to choose one of the three. When he chose 'aql, the others were told by Gabriel to return to heaven, They said that they were ordered by Allah to accompany 'aql wherever it remained. This indicates how comprehensive are the notions of intellect and knowledge in Islam, and how deeply related they are to faith and the moral faculty. 

Source: Sayyid Wahid Akhtar 

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Islam and the West have different point of view about knowledge. The term knowledge in Islam is called 'ilm that refers to all-embracing term covering theory, action and education. Knowledge in the Western world means information about something, divine or corporeal. Muslims claim that no other religion or ideology has so much emphasized the importance of 'ilm. The West, however, has successfully used the knowledge to establish civilization. What do you think about the application of knowledge in the Moslem world and the West right now? Include data as well as scientific reason to support your argument.  

A CONCEPTION OF ISLAMIC EDUCATION

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Education in the Islamic spirit is the last but most important category in this typology, because it is often the first meaning readers attribute to the phrase, Islamic education. Unfortunately, because of the swirl of media attention focused on education for and of Muslims, the term can connote for some people a concept of education so limited as to imply that Islamic education omits secular knowledge in favor of religious beliefs, and may be equated with the dissemination of ignorance. Some might assume that Islamic education might be shorthand for teaching hatred of "the West" or the United States. The concept of Islamic education cannot be reduced to such stereotypes, nor is it limited to rigid transmittal of 1400 year-old lifeways from ancient Arabia. Islamic education is certainly part of a historical tradition, but it is not the polar opposite of modernity, democracy or Western values. Stereotypes aside, such views of Islam and learning also result from over-identification of religious teachings per se with the historical/cultural context of Church/science conflicts known in the Western educational tradition, which are mistakenly assumed to be universal to human experience. The following paragraphs discuss some key terms and concepts from Islamic and Arabic terminology that are historically and currently associated with education in the Muslim tradition.

Education is the first duty of a Muslim, male or female. Knowledge of God is equated with the process of learning and teaching. The well-documented process of preserving Islamic scripture demonstrates the early emergence of a literate tradition and its transmission among Muslims as a social priority. It was incumbent upon the Muslim community from the beginning to commit the words of God and the teachings of Muhammad to memory and to writing. Among the least examined statements in academic literature is the notion that the Qur'an was collected from fragments after Muhammad's death. From the earliest period, recitation of the revealed portions of the Qur'an was part of the community's life. Since the verses were not revealed in the order in which they appear in the completed Qur'an, the ongoing process of placing them in order was part of Muhammad's mission to transmit the revelation until completion over 23 years of his prophethood. Scribes undertook the work of setting down the Qur'an resident in the memory of numerous reciters and in writing. Muhammad's own words and his exemplary deeds were also recorded (in hadith), and the sciences of Qur'anic exegesis and hadith authentication and evaluation became the foundation of the scholarly disciplines and Islamic law.

                      Source: Douglass, S.L. & Shaikh, Munir A.

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Some people said that conception of education does not have any roots in Islam. If there is a term, it is limited only for implying that Islamic education omits secular knowledge. The other might assume that it is shorthand for hatred teaching of western civilization. How do you think this opinion? Write at least three reasons to support your argument. You may agree or disagree with those.